\begin{document}
\input{subfileprefix}
-
\chapter{Green computing with \texorpdfstring{\gls{MTASK}}{mTask}}%
\label{chp:green_computing_mtask}
\begin{chapterabstract}
- This chapter demonstrate the energy saving features of \gls{MTASK}.
- First it gives an overview of general green computing measures for edge devices.
- Then \gls{MTASK}'s task scheduling is explained and it is shown how to customise it so suit the applications and energy needs.
- Finally it shows how to use interrupts in \gls{MTASK} to reduce the need for polling.
+ \noindent This chapter demonstrate the energy saving features of \gls{MTASK} by
+ \begin{itemize}
+ \item giving an overview of general green computing measures for edge devices;
+ \item explaining \gls{MTASK}'s task scheduling, and it is shown how to customise it so suit the applications and energy needs;
+ \item showing how to use interrupts in \gls{MTASK} to reduce the need for polling.
+ \end{itemize}
\end{chapterabstract}
The edge layer of the \gls{IOT} contains small devices that sense and interact with the world and it is crucial to lower their energy consumption.
While individual devices consume little energy, the sheer number of devices in total amounts to a lot.
-Furthermore, many \gls{IOT} devices operate on batteries and higher energy consumption increases the amount of e-waste as \gls{IOT} edge devices are often hard to reach and consequently hard to replace \citep{NIZETIC2020122877}.
+Furthermore, many \gls{IOT} devices operate on batteries and higher energy consumption increases the amount of e-waste as \gls{IOT} edge devices are often hard to reach and consequently hard to replace \citep{nizetic_internet_2020}.
To reduce the power consumption of an \gls{IOT} device, the specialized low-power sleep modes of the microprocessors can be leveraged.
Different sleep modes achieve different power reductions because of their different run time characteristics.
\begin{table}
\centering
+ \caption{Current use in \unit{\milli\ampere} of two microprocessor boards in various sleep modes.}%
+ \label{tbl:top_sleep}
\small
\begin{tabular}{ccccccccc}
\toprule
current & 100--240 & 15 & 0.5 & 0.002 & 90--300 & 5 & 2 & 0.005\\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
- \caption{Current use in \unit{\milli\ampere} of two microprocessor boards in various sleep modes.}%
- \label{tbl:top_sleep}
\end{table}
\Cref{tbl:top_sleep} shows the properties and current consumption of two commonly used microcontrollers.
An \gls{MTASK} program is dynamically transformed to byte code.
This byte code and the initial \gls{MTASK} expression are shipped to \gls{MTASK} \gls{IOT} node.
-For the example in \cref{lst:blink} there is byte code representing the \cleaninline{blink} function and \cleaninline{main} determines the initial expression.
-
The \gls{MTASK} rewrite engine rewrites the current expression just a single rewrite step at a time.
When subtasks are composed in parallel, all subtasks are rewritten unless the result of the first rewrite step makes the result of the other tasks superfluous.
The task design ensures such that all time critical communication with peripherals is within a single rewrite step.
Even infinite sequences rewrite steps, as in the \cleaninline{blink} example, are perfectly fine.
The \gls{MTASK} system does proper tail-call optimizations to facilitate this.
-\section{Task scheduling}
+\section{Rewrite interval}
Some \gls{MTASK} examples contain one or more explicit \cleaninline{delay} primitives, offering a natural place for the node executing it to pause.
However, there are many \gls{MTASK} programs that just specify a repeated set of primitives.
A typical example is the program that reads the temperature for a sensor and sets the system \gls{LED} if the reading is below some given \cleaninline{goal}.
\begin{lstClean}[caption={A basic thermostat task.},label={lst:thermostat}]
thermostat :: Main (MTask v Bool) | mtask v
thermostat = DHT I2Caddr \dht->
- {main = rpeat (
- temperature dht >>~. \temp.
- writeD builtInLED (goal <. temp)
- )}
+ {main = rpeat (temperature dht >>~. \temp.
+ writeD builtInLED (goal <. temp))}
\end{lstClean}
This program repeatedly reads the \gls{DHT} sensor and sets the on-board \gls{LED} based on the comparison with the \cleaninline{goal} as fast as possible on the \gls{MTASK} node.
Fortunately, \gls{MTASK} also contains machinery to do this automatically.
The key of this solution is to associate dynamically an evaluation interval with each task.
-The interval $\left\langle low, high \right\rangle$ indicates that the evaluation can be safely delayed by any number of milliseconds in that range.
+The interval $\rewriterate{low}{high}$ indicates that the evaluation can be safely delayed by any number of milliseconds within that range.
Such an interval is just a hint for the \gls{RTS}.
It is not a guarantee that the evaluation takes place in the given interval.
Other parts of the task expression can force an earlier evaluation of this part of the task.
When the system is very busy with other work, the task might even be executed after the upper bound of the interval.
-The system calculates the refresh rates from the current task expression.
+The system calculates the rewrite rates from the current task expression.
This has the advantage that the programmer does not have to deal with them and that they are available in each and every \gls{MTASK} program.
-\subsection{Basic Refresh Rates}
+\subsection{Basic tasks}
-We start by assigning default refresh rates to basic tasks.
-These refresh rates reflect the expected change rates of sensors and other inputs.
-Writing to basic \gls{GPIO} pins and actuators has refresh rate $\langle 0, 0 \rangle$, this is never delayed.
+We start by assigning default rewrite rates to basic tasks.
+These rewrite rates reflect the expected change rates of sensors and other inputs.
+Basic tasks to one-shot set a value of a sensor or actuator usually have a rate of $\rewriterate{0}{0}$, this is never delayed, e.g.\ writing to a \gls{GPIO} pin.
+Basic tasks that continuously read a value or otherwise interact with a peripheral have default rewrite rates that fit standard usage of the sensor.
+\Cref{tbl:rewrite} shows the default values for the basic tasks.
+I.e.\ reading \glspl{SDS} and fast sensors such as sound or light aim for a rewrite every \qty{100}{\ms}, medium slow sensors such as gesture sensors every \qty{1000}{\ms} and slow sensors such as temperature or air quality every \qty{2000}{\ms}.
\begin{table}
\centering
+ \caption{Default rewrite rates of basic tasks.}%
+ \label{tbl:rewrite}
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\toprule
- task & default interval \\
+ task & default interval\\
\midrule
- reading \pgls{SDS} & $\langle 0, 2000 \rangle$ \\
- slow sensor, like temperature & $\langle 0, 2000 \rangle$ \\
- gesture sensor & $\langle 0, 1000 \rangle$ \\
- fast sensor, like sound or light & $\langle 0, 100 \rangle$ \\
- reading GPIO pins & $\langle 0, 100 \rangle$ \\
+ reading \pgls{SDS} & $\rewriterate{0}{2000}$\\
+ slow sensor & $\rewriterate{0}{2000}$\\
+ medium sensor & $\rewriterate{0}{1000}$\\
+ fast sensor & $\rewriterate{0}{100}$\\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
- \caption{Default refresh rates of basic tasks.}%
- \label{tbl:refresh}
\end{table}
-\subsection{Deriving Refresh Rates}
-Based on these refresh rates, the system can automatically derive refresh rates for composed \gls{MTASK} expressions using $\mathcal{R}$.
-We use the operator $\cap_{\textit{safe}}$ to compose refresh ranges.
-When the ranges overlap the result is the overlapping range.
-Otherwise, the result is the range with the lowest numbers.
-The rationale is that subtasks should not be delayed longer than their refresh range.
-Evaluating a task earlier should not change its result but can consume more energy.
-
-\begin{align}
- \cap_{\textit{safe}} :: \langle \mathit{Int}, \mathit{Int} \rangle \; \langle \mathit{Int}, \mathit{Int} \rangle & \shortrightarrow \langle \mathit{Int}, \mathit{Int} \rangle & \notag \\
- R_1 \cap_{\textit{safe}} R_2 & = R_1 \cap R_2 & \text{if } R_1 \cap R_2 \neq \emptyset \\
- \langle l_1, h_1 \rangle \cap_{\textit{safe}} \langle l_2, h_2 \rangle & = \langle l_2, h_2 \rangle & \text{if } h_2 < l_1 \\
- R_1 \cap_{\textit{safe}} R_2 & = R_1 & \text{otherwise}
-\end{align}
-
-\begin{align}
- \mathcal{R} :: (\mathit{MTask}~v~a) & \shortrightarrow \langle \mathit{Int}, \mathit{Int} \rangle \notag \\
- \mathcal{R} (t_1~{.||.}~t_2) & = \mathcal{R}(t_1) \cap_{\textit{safe}} \mathcal{R}(t_2) \label{R:or} \\
- \mathcal{R}(t_1~{.\&\&.}~t_2) & = \mathcal{R}(t_1) \cap_{\textit{safe}} \mathcal{R}(t_2) \label{R:and}\\
- \mathcal{R}(t_1~{>\!\!>\!|.}~t_2) & = \mathcal{R}(t_1) \label{R:seq} \\
- \mathcal{R}(t~{>\!\!>\!=.}~f) & = \mathcal{R}(t) \label{R:bind} \\
- \mathcal{R}(t~{>\!\!>\!\!*.}~[a_1 \ldots a_n]) & = \mathcal{R}(t) \label{R:step} \\
- \mathcal{R}(\mathit{rpeat}~t) & = \langle 0, 0 \rangle \label{R:rpeat} \\
- \mathcal{R}(\mathit{rpeatEvery}~d~t) & = \langle 0, 0 \rangle \label{R:rpeatevery} \\
- \mathcal{R}(delay~d) & = \langle d, d \rangle \label{R:delay} \\
- \mathcal{R}(t) & =
- \left\{%
+\subsection{Deriving rewrite rates}\label{sec:deriving_rewrite_rates}
+Based on these default rewrite rates, the system automatically derives rewrite rates for composed \gls{MTASK} expressions using the function $\mathcal{R}$ as shown in \cref{equ:r}.
+
+\begin{equ}
+ \begin{align}
+ \mathcal{R} :: (\mathit{MTask}~v~a) & \shortrightarrow \rewriterate{\mathit{Int}}{\mathit{Int}} \notag \\
+ \mathcal{R} (t_1~{.||.}~t_2) & = \mathcal{R}(t_1) \cap_{\textit{safe}} \mathcal{R}(t_2) \label{R:or} \\
+ \mathcal{R}(t_1~{.\&\&.}~t_2) & = \mathcal{R}(t_1) \cap_{\textit{safe}} \mathcal{R}(t_2) \label{R:and}\\
+ \mathcal{R}(t~{>\!\!>\!\!*.}~[a_1 \ldots a_n]) & = \mathcal{R}(t) \label{R:step} \\
+ \mathcal{R}(\mathit{rpeat}~t~\mathit{start}) & =
+ \left\{\begin{array}{ll}
+ \mathcal{R}(t) & \text{if $t$ is unstable}\\
+ \rewriterate{r_1-\mathit{start}}{r_2-\mathit{start}} & \text{otherwise}\\
+ \end{array}\right.\\
+ \mathcal{R} (\mathit{waitUntil}~d) & = \rewriterate{e-\mathit{time}}{e-\mathit{time}}\label{R:delay}\\
+ \mathcal{R} (t) & =
+ \left\{%
+ \begin{array}{ll}
+ \rewriterate{\infty}{\infty}~& \text{if}~t~\text{is Stable} \\
+ \rewriterate{r_l}{r_u} & \text{otherwise}
+ \end{array}
+ \right.\label{R:other}
+ \end{align}
+ \caption{Function $\mathcal{R}$ for deriving refresh rates.}%
+ \label{equ:r}
+\end{equ}
+
+\subsubsection{Parallel combinators}
+For parallel combinators, the \emph{or}-combinator (\cleaninline{.\|\|.}) in \cref{R:or} and the \emph{and}-combinator (\cleaninline{.&&.}) in \cref{R:and}, the safe intersection (see \cref{equ:safe_intersect}) of the rewrite rates is taken to determine the rewrite rate of the complete task.
+The conventional intersection does not suffice here because it yields an empty intersection when the intervals do not overlap.
+In that case, the safe intersection behaves will return the range with the lowest numbers.
+The rationale is that subtasks should not be delayed longer than their rewrite range.
+Evaluating a task earlier should not change its result but just consumes more energy.
+
+\begin{equ}
+ \[
+ X \cap_{\textit{safe}} Y = \left\{%
\begin{array}{ll}
- \langle \infty, \infty \rangle~& \text{if}~t~\text{is Stable} \\
- \langle r_l, r_u \rangle & \text{otherwise}
+ X\cap Y & X\cap Y \neq \emptyset\\
+ Y & Y_2 < X_1\\
+ X & \text{otherwise}\\
\end{array}
- \right.\label{R:other}
-\end{align}
-
-We will briefly discuss the various cases of deriving refresh rates together with the task semantics of the different combinators
-
-\subsubsection{Parallel Combinators} For the parallel composition of tasks we compute the intersection of the refresh intervals of the components as outlined in the definition of $\cap_{\textit{safe}}$.
-The operator \cleaninline{.\|\|.} in \cref{R:or} is the \emph{or}-combinator; the first subtask that produces a stable value determines the result of the composition.
-The operator \cleaninline{.&&.} in \cref{R:and} is the \emph{and}-operator. The result is the tuple containing both results when both subtasks have a stable value.
-The refresh rates of the parallel combinators have no direct relation with their task result.
+ \right.
+ \]
+ \caption{Safe intersection operator}\label{equ:safe_intersect}
+\end{equ}
-\subsubsection{Sequential Combinators}
-For the sequential composition of tasks we only have to look at the refresh rate of the current task on the left.
-The sequential composition operator \cleaninline{>>\|.} in \cref{R:seq} is similar to the monadic sequence operator \cleaninline{>>\|}.
-The operator \cleaninline{>>=.} in \cref{R:bind} provides the stable task result to the function on the right-hand side, similar to the monadic bind.
-The operator \cleaninline{>>~.} steps on an unstable value and is otherwise equal to \cleaninline{>>=.}.
-The step combinator \cleaninline{>>*.} in \cref{R:step} has a list of conditional actions that specify a new task.
+\subsubsection{Sequential combinators}
+For the step combinator (\cref{R:step})---and all other derived sequential combinators---the refresh rate of the left-hand side task is taken since that is the only task that is rewritten.
+Only after stepping, the combinator rewrites to the right-hand side.
-\subsubsection{Repeat Combinators}
+\subsubsection{Repeating combinators}
The repeat combinators repeats their argument indefinitely.
-The combinator \cleaninline{rpeatEvery} guarantees the given delay between repetitions.
-The refresh rate is equal to the refresh rate of the current argument task.
-Only when \cleaninline{rpeatEvery} waits between the iterations of the argument the refresh interval is equal to the remaining delay time.
-
-\subsubsection{Other Combinators}
-The refresh rate of the \cleaninline{delay} in \cref{R:delay} is equal to the remaining delay.
-Refreshing stable tasks can be delayed indefinitely, their value never changes.
-For other basic tasks, the values from \cref{tbl:refresh} apply.
-The values $r_l$ and $r_u$ in \cref{R:other} are the lower and upper bound of the rate.
-
-The refresh intervals associated with various steps of the thermostat program from \cref{lst:thermostat} are given in \cref{tbl:intervals}.
+As the \cleaninline{rpeat} task tree node already includes a rewrite rate (set to $\rewriterate{0}{0}$ for a default \cleaninline{rpeat}), both \cleaninline{rpeat} and \cleaninline{rpeatEvery} use the same task tree node and thus only one entry is required here.
+The derived refresh rate of the repeat combinator is the refresh rate of the child if it is unstable.
+Otherwise, the refresh rate is the embedded rate time minus the start time.
+In case of the \cleaninline{rpeat} task, the default refresh rate is $\rewriterate{0}{0}$ so the task immediately refreshes and starts the task again.
+\todo{netter opschrijven}
+
+\subsubsection{Delay combinators}
+Upon installation, a \cleaninline{delay} task is stored as a \cleaninline{waitUntil} task tree containing the time of installation added to the specified time to wait.
+Execution wise, it waits until the current time exceeds the time is greater than the argument time.
+
+\subsubsection{Other tasks}
+All other tasks are captured by \cref{R:other}.
+If the task is stable, rewriting can be delayed indefinitely since the value will not change anyway.
+In all other cases, the values from \cref{tbl:rewrite} apply where $r_l$ and $r_u$ represent the lower and upper bound of this rate.
+
+The rewrite intervals associated with various steps of the thermostat program from \cref{lst:thermostat} are given in \cref{tbl:intervals}.
Those rewrite steps and intervals are circular, after step 2 we continue with step 0 again.
Only the actual reading of the sensor with \cleaninline{temperature dht} offers the possibility for a non-zero delay.
+\subsection{Example}
%%\begin{table}[tb]
\begin{table}
\centering
+ \caption{Rewrite steps of the thermostat from \cref{lst:thermostat} and associated intervals.}%
+ \label{tbl:intervals}
\begin{tabular}{cp{20em}c}
\toprule
Step & Expression & Interval \\
writeD builtInLED (goal <. temp)
)\end{lstClean}
&
- $\langle 0, 0 \rangle$ \\
+ $\rewriterate{0}{0}$ \\
%\hline
1 &
\begin{lstClean}[aboveskip=-2ex,belowskip=-2ex,frame=]
rpeat ( temperature dht >>~. \temp.
writeD builtInLED (goal <. temp)
)\end{lstClean}
- & $\langle 0, 2000 \rangle$ \\
+ & $\rewriterate{0}{2000}$ \\
%\hline
2 &
\begin{lstClean}[aboveskip=-2ex,belowskip=-2ex,frame=]
rpeat ( temperature dht >>~. \temp.
writeD builtInLED (goal <. temp)
)\end{lstClean}
- & $\langle 0, 0 \rangle$ \\
+ & $\rewriterate{0}{0}$ \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
- \caption{Rewrite steps of the thermostat from \cref{lst:thermostat} and associated intervals.}%
- \label{tbl:intervals}
\end{table}
-\subsection{User Defined Refresh Rates}
-In some applications, it is necessary to read sensors at a different rate than the default rate given in \cref{tbl:refresh}, i.e.\ to customise the refresh rate.
-This is achieved by calling the access functions with a custom refresh rate as an additional argument (suffixed with the backtick (\cleaninline{`}))
+\subsection{Tweaking rewrite rates}
+A tailor-made \gls{ADT} (see \cref{lst:interval}) determines the timing intervals for which the value is determined at runtime but the constructor is known at compile time.
+During compilation, the constructor of the \gls{ADT} is checked and code is generated accordingly.
+If it is \cleaninline{Default}, no extra code is generated.
+In the other cases, code is generated to wrap the task tree node in a \emph{tune rate} node.
+In the case that there is a lower bound, i.e.\ the task must not be executed before this lower bound, an extra \emph{rate limit} task tree node is generated that performs a no-op rewrite if the lower bound has not passed but caches the task value.
-\begin{lstClean}[caption={Auxiliary definitions to \cref{lst:gpio} for \gls{DHT} sensors and digital \gls{GPIO} with custom timing intervals.},label={lst:dht}]
+\begin{lstClean}[caption={The \gls{ADT} for timing intervals in \gls{MTASK}.},label={lst:interval}]
+:: TimingInterval v = Default
+ | BeforeMs (v Int) // yields [+$\rewriterate{0}{x}$+]
+ | BeforeS (v Int) // yields [+$\rewriterate{0}{x \times 1000}$+]
+ | ExactMs (v Int) // yields [+$\rewriterate{x}{x}$+]
+ | ExactS (v Int) // yields [+$\rewriterate{0}{x \times 1000}$+]
+ | RangeMs (v Int) (v Int) // yields [+$\rewriterate{x}{y}$+]
+ | RangeS (v Int) (v Int) // yields [+$\rewriterate{x \times 1000}{y \times 1000}$+]
+\end{lstClean}
+
+\subsubsection{Sensors and \texorpdfstring{\glspl{SDS}}{shared data sources}}
+In some applications, it is necessary to read sensors or \glspl{SDS} at a different rate than the default rate given in \cref{tbl:rewrite}, i.e.\ to customise the rewrite rate.
+This is achieved by calling the access functions with a custom rewrite rate as an additional argument (suffixed with the backtick (\cleaninline{`}))
+The adaptions to other classes are similar and omitted for brevity.
+\Cref{lst:dht_ext} shows the extended \cleaninline{dht} and \cleaninline{dio} class definition with functions for custom rewrite rates.
+
+\begin{lstClean}[caption={Auxiliary definitions to \cref{lst:gpio,lst:dht} for \gls{DHT} sensors and digital \gls{GPIO} with custom timing intervals.},label={lst:dht_ext}]
class dht v where
...
temperature` :: (TimingInterval v) (v DHT) -> MTask v Real
readD :: (v p) -> MTask v Bool | pin p
\end{lstClean}
-A tailor-made \gls{ADT} determines the timing intervals.
-
-% doordat texcl aanstaat in listings zijn comments automatisch al in LaTeX
-\begin{lstlisting}[language=Clean,caption={The \gls{ADT} for timing intervals in \gls{MTASK}.},label={lst:interval}]
-:: TimingInterval v = Default
- | BeforeMs (v Int) // yields $\langle 0, x \rangle $
- | BeforeS (v Int) // yields $\langle 0, x \times 1000 \rangle $
- | ExactMs (v Int) // yields $\langle x, x \rangle $
- | ExactS (v Int) // yields $\langle 0, x \times 1000 \rangle $
- | RangeMs (v Int) (v Int) // yields $\langle x, y \rangle $
- | RangeS (v Int) (v Int) // yields $\langle x \times 1000, y \times 1000 \rangle $
-\end{lstlisting}
-
As example, we define an \gls{MTASK} that updates the \gls{SDS} \cleaninline{tempSds} in \gls{ITASK} in a tight loop.
The \cleaninline{temperature`} reading requires that this happens at least once per minute.
Without other tasks on the \gls{IOT} node, the temperature \gls{SDS} is updated once per minute.
Other tasks can cause a slightly more frequent update.
-\begin{lstClean}[caption={Updating \pgls{SDS} in \gls{ITASK} at most once per minute.},label={lst:updatesds2}]
+\begin{lstClean}[caption={Updating \pgls{SDS} in \gls{ITASK} at least once per minute.},label={lst:updatesds2}]
+delayTime :: TimingInterval v | mtask v
delayTime = BeforeS (lit 60) // 1 minute in seconds
devTask :: Main (MTask v Real) | mtask, dht, liftsds v
-devTask = DHT (DHT_DHT pin DHT11) \dht =
- liftsds \localSds = tempSds
- In {main = rpeat (temperature` delayTime dht >>~. setSds localSds)}
+devTask =
+ DHT (DHT_DHT pin DHT11) \dht =
+ liftsds \localSds = tempSds
+ In {main = rpeat (temperature` delayTime dht >>~. setSds localSds)}
+\end{lstClean}
+
+\subsubsection{Repeating tasks}
+The task combinator \cleaninline{rpeat} restarts the child task in the evaluation if the previous produced a stable result.
+However, in some cases it is desirable to postpone the restart of the child.
+For this, the \cleaninline{rpeatEvery} task is introduced which receives an extra argument, the rewrite rate, as shown in \cref{lst:rpeatevery}.
+Instead of immediately restarting the child once it yields a stable value, it checks whether the lower bound of the provided timing interval has passed since the start of the task\footnotemark.
+\footnotetext{In reality, it also compensates for time drift by taking into account the upper bound of the timing interval.
+If the task takes longer to stabilise than the upper bound of the timing interval, this upper bound is taken as the start of the task instead of the actual start.}
+
+\begin{lstClean}[caption={Repeat task combinator with a timing interval.},label={lst:rpeatevery}]
+class rpeat v where
+ rpeat :: (MTask v t) -> MTask v t
+ rpeatEvery v :: (TimingInterval v) (MTask v t) -> MTask v t
+\end{lstClean}
+
+\Cref{lst:rpeateveryex} shows an example of an \gls{MTASK} task utilising the \cleaninline{rpeatEvery} combinator that would be impossible to create with the regular \cleaninline{rpeat}.
+The \cleaninline{timedPulse} function creates a task that sends a \qty{50}{\ms} pulse to the \gls{GPIO} pin 0 every second.
+The task created by the \cleaninline{timedPulseNaive} functions emulates the behaviour by using \cleaninline{rpeat} and \cleaninline{delay}.
+However, this results in a time drift because rewriting tasks trees takes some time and the time it takes can not always be reliably predicted due to external factors.
+E.g.\ writing to \gls{GPIO} pins takes some time, interrupts may slow down the program (see \cref{lst:interrupts}), or communication may occur in between task evaluations.
+
+\begin{lstClean}[caption={Example program for the repeat task combinator with a timing interval.},label={lst:rpeateveryex}]
+timedPulse :: Main (MTask v Bool) | mtask v
+timedPulse = declarePin D0 PMOutput \d0->
+ in {main = rpeatEvery (ExactSec (lit 1)) (
+ writeD d0 true
+ >>|. delay (lit 50)
+ >>|. writeD d0 false
+ )
+ }
+
+timedPulseNaive :: Main (MTask v Bool) | mtask v
+timedPulseNaive = declarePin D0 PMOutput \d0->
+ {main = rpeat (
+ writeD d0 true
+ >>|. delay (lit 50)
+ >>|. writeD d0 false
+ >>|. delay (lit 950))
+ }
+\end{lstClean}
+
+\section{Task scheduling in the \texorpdfstring{\gls{MTASK}}{mTask} engine}
+The rewrite rates from the previous section only tell us how much the next evaluation of the task can be delayed.
+An \gls{IOT} edge devices executes multiple tasks may run interleaved.
+In addition, it has to communicate with a server to collect new tasks and updates of \glspl{SDS}.
+Hence, the rewrite intervals cannot be used directly to let the microcontroller sleep.
+Our scheduler has the following objectives.
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item
+ Meet the deadline whenever possible, i.e.\ the system tries to execute every task before the end of its rewrite interval.
+ Only too much work on the device might cause an overflow of the deadline.
+ \item
+ Achieve long sleep times. Waking up from sleep consumes some energy and takes some time.
+ Hence, we prefer a single long sleep over splitting this interval into several smaller pieces.
+ \item
+ The scheduler tries to avoid unnecessary evaluations of tasks as much as possible.
+ A task should not be evaluated now when its execution can also be delayed until the next time that the device is active.
+ That is, a task should preferably not be executed before the start of its rewrite interval.
+ Whenever possible, task execution should even be delayed when we are inside the rewrite interval as long as we can execute the task before the end of the interval.
+ \item
+ The optimal power state should be selected.
+ Although a system uses less power in a deep sleep mode, it also takes more time and energy to wake up from deep sleep.
+ When the system knows that it can sleep only a short time it is better to go to light sleep mode since waking up from light sleep is faster and consumes less energy.
+\end{itemize}
+
+The algorithm $\mathcal{R}$ from \cref{sec:deriving_rewrite_rates} computes the evaluation rate of the current tasks.
+For the scheduler, we transform this interval to an absolute evaluation interval; the lower and upper bound of the start time of that task measured in the time of the \gls{IOT} edge device.
+We obtain those bounds by adding the current system time to the bounds of the computed rewrite interval by algorithm $\mathcal{R}$.
+
+For the implementation, it is important to note that the evaluation of a task takes time.
+Some tasks are extremely fast, but other tasks require long computations and time-consuming communication with peripherals as well as with the server.
+These execution times can yield a considerable and noticeable time drift in \gls{MTASK} programs.
+For instance, a task like \cleaninline{rpeatEvery (ExactMs 1) t} should repeat \cleaninline{t} every millisecond.
+The programmer might expect that \cleaninline{t} will be executed for the ${(N+1)}^{th}$ time after $N$ milliseconds.
+Uncompensated time drift might make this considerably later.
+\Gls{MTASK} does not pretend to be a hard real-time \gls{OS}, and cannot give firm guarantees with respect to evaluation time.
+Nevertheless, we try to make time handling as reliable as possible.
+This is achieved by adding the start time of this round of task evaluations rather than the current time to compute absolute execution intervals.
+
+\subsection{Scheduling Tasks}
+Apart from the task to execute, the \gls{IOT} device has to maintain the connection with the server and check there for new tasks and updates of \gls{SDS}.
+When the microcontroller is active, it checks the connection and updates from the server and executes the task if it is in its execution window.
+Next, the microcontroller goes to light sleep for the minimum of a predefined interval and the task delay.
+
+In general, the microcontroller node executes multiple \gls{MTASK} tasks at the same time.
+\Gls{MTASK} nodes repeatedly check for inputs from servers and execute all tasks that cannot be delayed to the next evaluation round one step.
+The tasks are stored in a priority queue to check efficiently which of them need to be stepped.
+The \gls{MTASK} tasks are ordered at their absolute latest start time in this queue; the earliest deadline first.
+We use the earliest deadline to order tasks with equal latest deadline.
+
+It is very complicated to make an optimal scheduling algorithm for tasks to minimize the energy consumption.
+We use a simple heuristic to evaluate tasks and determine sleep time rather than wasting energy on a fancy evaluation algorithm.
+\Cref{lst:evalutionRound} gives this algorithm in pseudo code.
+First the \gls{MTASK} node checks for new tasks and updates of \glspl{SDS}.
+This communication adds any task to the queue.
+The \cleaninline{stepped} set contains all tasks evaluated in this evaluation round.
+Next, we evaluate tasks from the queue until we encounter a task that has an evaluation interval that is not started.
+This might evaluate tasks earlier than required, but maximizes the opportunities to sleep after this evaluation round.
+%Using the \prog{stepped} set ensures that we evaluate each task at most once during an evaluation round.
+Executed tasks are temporarily stored in the \cleaninline{stepped} set instead of inserted directly into the queue to ensure that they are evaluated at most once in a evaluation round to ensure that there is frequent communication with the server.
+A task that produces a stable value is completed and is not queued again.
+
+\begin{algorithm}
+%\DontPrintSemicolon
+\SetKwProg{Repeatt}{repeat}{}{end}
+\KwData{queue = []\;}
+\Begin{
+ \Repeatt{}{
+ time = currentTime()\;
+ queue += communicateWithServer()\;
+ stepped = []\tcp*{tasks stepped in this round}
+ \While{$\neg$empty(queue) $\wedge$ earliestDeadline(top(queue)) $\leq$ time}{
+ (task, queue) = pop(queue)\;
+ task2 = step(task)\tcp*{computes new execution interval}
+ \If(\tcp*[f]{not finished after step}){$\neg$ isStable(task2)}{
+ stepped += task2\;
+ }
+ }
+ queue = merge(queue, stepped)\;
+ sleep(queue)\;
+ }
+}
+\caption{Pseudo code for the evaluation round of tasks in the queue.}
+\label{lst:evalutionRound}
+\end{algorithm}
+
+The \cleaninline{sleep} function determines the maximum sleep time based on the top of the queue.
+The computed sleep time and the characteristics of the microprocessor determine the length and depth of the sleep.
+For very short sleep times it might not be worthwhile to sleep.
+In the current \gls{MTASK} \gls{RTS}, the thresholds are determined by experimentation but can be tuned by the programmer.
+On systems that lose the content of their \gls{RAM} it is not possible to go to deep sleep mode.
+
+\section{Interrupts}\label{lst:interrupts}
+Most microcontrollers have built-in support for processor interrupts.
+These interrupts are hard-wired signals that can interrupt the normal flow of the program to execute a small piece of code, the \gls{ISR}.
+While the \glspl{ISR} look like regular functions, they do come with some limitations.
+For example, they must be very short, in order not to miss future interrupts; can only do very limited \gls{IO}; cannot reliably check the clock; and they operate in their own stack, and thus communication must happen via global variables.
+After the execution of the \gls{ISR}, the normal program flow is resumed.
+Interrupts are heavily used internally in the \gls{RTS} of the microcontrollers to perform timing critical operations such as WiFi, \gls{I2C}, or \gls{SPI} communication; completed \gls{ADC} conversions, software timers; exception handling; \etc.
+
+Interrupts offer two substantial benefits: fewer missed events and better energy usage.
+Sometimes an external event such as a button press only occurs for a very small duration, making it possible to miss it due to it happening right between two polls.
+Using interrupts is not a fool-proof way of never missing an event.
+Events may still be missed if they occur during the execution of an \gls{ISR} or while the microcontroller is still in the process of waking up from a triggered interrupt.
+There are also some sensors, such as the CCS811 air quality sensor, with support for triggering interrupts when a value exceeds a critical limit.
+
+There are several different types of interrupts possible.
+\begin{table}
+ \centering
+ \caption{Overview of \gls{GPIO} interrupt types.}%
+ \label{tbl:gpio_interrupts}
+ \begin{tabular}{ll}
+ \toprule
+ type & triggers\\
+ \midrule
+ change & input changes\\
+ falling & input becomes low\\
+ rising & input becomes high\\
+ low & input is low\\
+ high & input is high\\
+ \bottomrule
+ \end{tabular}
+\end{table}
+
+\subsection{\Gls{ARDUINO} platform}
+\Cref{lst:arduino_interrupt} shows an exemplatory program utilising interrupts written in \gls{ARDUINO}'s \gls{CPP} dialect.
+The example shows a debounced light switch for the built-in \gls{LED} connected to \gls{GPIO} pin 13.
+When the user presses the button connected to \gls{GPIO} pin 11, the state of the \gls{LED} changes.
+As buttons sometimes induce noise shortly after pressing, events within \qty{30}{\ms} after pressing are ignored.
+In between the button presses, the device goes into deep sleep using the \arduinoinline{LowPower} library.
+
+\Crefrange{lst:arduino_interrupt:defs_fro}{lst:arduino_interrupt:defs_to} defines the pin and debounce constants.
+\Cref{lst:arduino_interrupt:state} defines the current state of the \gls{LED}, it is declared \arduinoinline{volatile} to exempt it from compiler optimisations because it is accessed in the interrupt handler.
+\Cref{lst:arduino_interrupt:cooldown} flags whether the program is in debounce state, i.e.\ events should be ignored for a short period of time.
+
+In the \arduinoinline{setup} function (\crefrange{lst:arduino_interrupt:setup_fro}{lst:arduino_interrupt:setup_to}), the pinmode of the \gls{LED} and interrupt pins are set.
+Furthermore, the microcontroller is instructed to wake up from sleep mode when a \emph{rising} interrupt occurs on the interrupt pin and to call the \gls{ISR} at \crefrange{lst:arduino_interrupt:isr_fro}{lst:arduino_interrupt:isr_to}.
+This \gls{ISR} checks if the program is in cooldown state.
+If this is not the case, the state of the \gls{LED} is toggled.
+In any case, the program goes into cooldown state afterwards.
+
+In the \arduinoinline{loop} function, the microcontroller goes to low-power sleep immediately and indefinitely.
+Only when an interrupt triggers, the program continues, writes the state to the \gls{LED}, waits for the debounce time, and finally disables the \arduinoinline{cooldown} state.
+
+\begin{lstArduino}[numbers=left,label={lst:arduino_interrupt},caption={Light switch using interrupts.}]
+#define LEDPIN 13[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:defs_fro}+]
+#define INTERRUPTPIN 11
+#define DEBOUNCE 30[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:defs_to}+]
+
+volatile int state = LOW;[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:state}+]
+volatile bool cooldown = true;[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:cooldown}+]
+
+void setup() {[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:setup_fro}+]
+ pinMode(LEDPIN, OUTPUT);
+ pinMode(INTERRUPTPIN, INPUT);
+ LowPower.attachInterruptWakeup(INTERRUPTPIN, buttonPressed, RISING);
+}[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:setup_to}+]
+
+void loop() {[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:loop_fro}+]
+ LowPower.sleep();
+ digitalWrite(LEDPIN, state);
+ delay(DEBOUNCE);
+ cooldown = false;
+}[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:loop_to}+]
+
+void buttonPressed() {[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:isr_fro}+]
+ if (!cooldown)
+ state = !state;
+ cooldown = true;
+}[+\label{lst:arduino_interrupt:isr_to}+]
+\end{lstArduino}
+
+\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\Gls{MTASK}}{MTask} language}
+\Cref{lst:mtask_interrupts} shows the interrupt interface in \gls{MTASK}.
+The \cleaninline{interrupt} class contains a single function that, given an interrupt mode and a \gls{GPIO} pin, produces a task that represents this interrupt.
+Lowercase variants of the various interrupt modes such as \cleaninline{change :== lit Change} are available as convenience macros (see \cref{sec:expressions}).
+
+\begin{lstClean}[label={lst:mtask_interrupts},caption={The interrupt interface in \gls{MTASK}.}]
+class interrupt v where
+ interrupt :: (v InterruptMode) (v p) -> MTask v Bool | pin p
+
+:: InterruptMode = Change | Rising | Falling | Low | High
\end{lstClean}
-\subsection{Language}
-\subsection{Device}
+When the \gls{MTASK} device executes this task, it installs an \gls{ISR} and sets the rewrite rate of the task to infinity, $\rewriterate{\infty}{\infty}$.
+The interrupt handler is set up in such a way that the rewrite rate is changed to $\rewriterate{0}{0}$ once the interrupt triggers.
+As a consequence, the task is executed on the next execution cycle.
+
+The \cleaninline{pirSwitch} function in \cref{lst:pirSwitch} creates, given an interval in \unit{\ms}, a task that reacts to motion detection by a \gls{PIR} sensor (connected to \gls{GPIO} pin 0) by lighting the \gls{LED} connected to \gls{GPIO} pin 13 for the given interval.
+The system lightens the \gls{LED} again when there is still motion detected after this interval.
+By changing the interrupt mode in this program text from \cleaninline{High} to \cleaninline{Rising} the system lights the \gls{LED} only one interval when it detects motion no matter how long this signal is present at the \gls{PIR} pin.
+
+\begin{lstClean}[caption={Example of a toggle light switch using interrupts.},label={lst:pirSwitch}]
+pirSwitch :: Int -> Main (MTask v Bool) | mtask v
+pirSwitch =
+ declarePin D13 PMOutput \ledpin->
+ declarePin D0 PMInput \pirpin->
+ {main = rpeat ( interrupt high pirpin
+ >>|. writeD ledpin false
+ >>|. delay (lit interval)
+ >>|. writeD ledpin true) }
+\end{lstClean}
-\section{Interrupts}
+\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\Gls{MTASK}}{MTask} engine}
+
+While interrupt tasks have their own node type in the task tree, they differ slightly from other node types because they require a more elaborate setup and teardown.
+Enabling and disabling interrupts is done in a general way in which tasks register themselves after creation and deregister after deletion.
+Interrupts should be disabled when there are no tasks waiting for that kind of interrupt because unused interrupts can lead to unwanted wake ups, and only one kind of interrupt can be attached to a pin.
+
+\subsubsection{Event registration}
+The \gls{MTASK} \gls{RTS} contains an event administration to register which task is waiting on which event.
+During the setup of an interrupt task, the event administration in the \gls{MTASK} \gls{RTS} is checked to determine whether a new \gls{ISR} for the particular pin needs to be registered.
+Furthermore, this registration allows for a quick lookup in the \gls{ISR} to find the tasks listening to the events.
+Conversely, during the teardown, the \gls{ISR} is disabled again when the last interrupt task of that kind is deleted.
+The registration is light-weight and consists only of an event identifier and task identifier.
+This event registration is stored as a linked list of task tree nodes so that the garbage collector can clean them up when they become unused.
+
+Registering and deregistering interrupts is a device specific procedure, although most supported devices use the \gls{ARDUINO} \gls{API} for this.
+Which pins support which interrupt differs greatly from device to device but this information is known at compile time.
+At the time of registration, the \gls{RTS} checks whether the interrupt is valid and throws an \gls{MTASK} exception if it is not.
+Moreover, an exception is thrown if multiple types of interrupts are registered on the same pin.
+
+\subsubsection{Triggering interrupts}
+Once an interrupt fires, tasks registered to that interrupt are not immediately evaluated because it is usually not safe to do.
+For example, the interrupt could fire in the middle of a garbage collection process, resulting in incorrect pointers.
+Furthermore, as the \gls{ISR} is supposed to be be very short, just a flag in the event administration is set.
+Interrupt event flags are processed at the beginning of the event loop, before tasks are executed.
+For each subscribed task, the task tree is searched for nodes listening for the particular interrupt.
+When found, the node is flagged and the pin status is written.
+Afterwards, the evaluation interval of the task is set to $\rewriterate{0}{0}$ and the task is reinsterted at the front of the scheduling queue to ensure rapid evaluation of the task.
+Finally, the event is removed from the registration and the interrupt is disabled.
+The interrupt can be disabled as all tasks waiting for the interrupt become stable after firing.
+More occurrences of the interrupts do not change the value of the task as stable tasks keep the same value forever.
+Therefore, it is no longer necessary to keep the interrupt enabled, and it is relatively cheap to enable it again if needed in the future.
+Evaluating interrupt task node in the task tree is trivial because all of the work was already done when the interrupt was triggered.
+The task emits the status of the pin as a stable value if the information in the task shows that it was triggered.
+Otherwise, no value is emitted.
\input{subfilepostamble}
\end{document}
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